Seminar Paper Results

Below is the link to the audio overview of my seminar paper:  The Effectiveness of Explicit Vocabulary Instructional Strategies Prior to and During Reading with Special Education Learners.  Enjoy!

https://soundcloud.com/kfetterman/seminar-paper-

Below is also a written copy, if that makes it easier.

The topic of my seminar paper was explicit vocabulary instructional strategies used before and during reading, with a focus on special education learners.  I chose this topic because I am a 7^th grade special education teacher, and vocabulary is a major deficit area with my students.

My first study compared a rehearsal strategy and the keyword strategy, which uses pictures to help jog students’ memories.  The results of this study were clear.  The keyword method was more effective than the rehearsal method for both the recall measure and the comprehension measure.  More importantly, while there was a difference in effectiveness between the concrete and abstract vocabulary words for the rehearsal method, there was no major difference between them in the keyword method.  In fact, on the comprehension assessment, students actually performed better on the abstract vocabulary when using the keyword method.

In the next study, students participated in four different conditions; text reading, vocabulary learning, a combined approach, and a control group when reading science texts.  On the reading fluency measure, all three conditions produced greater fluency in students than the control condition.  However, the text-reading and the combined conditions provided the greatest amount of words read.  On the vocabulary knowledge measure, the vocabulary learning condition and the combined condition exhibited the greatest scores, 5.5 to 6.0 words correct, as opposed to 3 on text-reading and 2.5 on the control.  On the passage comprehension measure, the three conditions edged out the control condition slightly, with scores of 6.5 to 7, compared to 6 for the control.  It is clear that all varying conditions improve the measure which they are focused on, but can sometimes have positive effects on other measures as well.  For example, the vocabulary learning condition not only increased the score on the vocabulary knowledge measure, but on the reading fluency measure as well.

The third study compared two different types of vocabulary instruction with the regular curriculum.  One was word mapping, a generative morphemic analysis strategy, and the other was the vocabulary LINCS strategy, where students look up the meaning of the word and use a series of steps to aid in remembering the definition.  In this study, both students with and without disabilities from the Word Mapping and LINCS group improved significantly on the strategy-use and word knowledge tests.  On the morphological analysis assessment, the Word Mapping group made greater gains than the Vocabulary LINCS and the regular curriculum groups, going from 18% correct to 60% correct.  Interesting to note is the lack of difference between students with and without disabilities on the assessments.

The final study divided students into two groups; one would learn new vocabulary through semantic feature analysis (SFA), and the other would learn through the dictionary method (DM).  In this study, students gained and retained significantly more knowledge when educated using the semantic feature analysis.  Average scores showed that these students scored approximately eight out of ten on vocabulary and concept questions, while dictionary method students scored between five and six out of ten on both.  However, both groups showed retention over 6 months; neither group had any significant loss.  The difference in scores, however, shows that the semantic feature analysis is much more successful at teaching students new vocabulary and concepts, thus improving overall reading comprehension.  Researchers hypothesized this to be true because the SFA engaged students and made them think deeply and scaffold new information, while the DM students were able to complete their pre-reading assignment with little thought or processing taking place.

All of these studies addressed different vocabulary acquisition strategies that can be used with special education learners both before reading and during reading, with varying levels of success.  Whether they taught students strategies to break down words, memorize words, use prior knowledge, or consult other resources to supplement their knowledge, each strategy showed some type of improvement in the vocabulary knowledge of students with disabilities.

The findings of all four studies are all extremely relevant to special educators, as well as regular educators.  So often, teachers rush to get to the content that they are supposed to cover without giving a thought to how students will access the new vocabulary they inevitably come across in the text.  These studies exemplify how crucial pre-reading strategies are to students, and this rings true especially with our students with disabilities.  If students participate in some sort of pre-reading activity, designed to activate prior knowledge and scaffold new information, the studies showed that it greatly increased the overall comprehension of the reader.

In addition to the success rates of the studies, there were a variety of populations used across the four studies.  Even though the majority of the individual studies were narrowly focused on a specific population, as a whole, the research completed varied in areas of the United States.  A few also evaluated the results of their special education learners against the results of regular education students.  That basis of comparison is essential.  When writing IEPs, one major factor is including the deficit level of special education students with their non-disabled peers.  The studies that compared the two groups showed that there was not a major difference.  That is extremely encouraging news to hear as a special educator.  While our students may need extra modeling, practice, review, and reinforcement of skills, they are just as capable as a student without a disability.

In my own classroom, I can see myself implementing a variety of these strategies.  The one that resonated with me the most was the generative morphemic analysis strategy, referred to as Word Mapping in the study.  I found this strategy particularly useful because it doesn’t rely on a memorization trick or prior knowledge activation led by the teacher.  Once the strategy is taught, the more students practice it, the better they will become.  Word Mapping teaches students to break an unknown word down into pieces, and create meaning using the prefix, suffix, and/or root of the word.  This is an approach that can be used throughout a student’s life, whether it be on a standardized test in high school or in a job interview after graduating college.  This is a tactic I personally use, and once it becomes automatic, it can be incredibly helpful when an unfamiliar word pops up.

While the researchers of these studies presented a lot of information, there were some things that were left to be desired.  For example, there was not a lot of discussion about how time-consuming it was to create the materials used for each of these strategies.  While they are useful, of course, I wondered often about whether the time put into creating the materials is worth the knowledge gained by the students.  If you create 20 keyword index cards, and students only retain 4 of the words, it would seem to me that there must be a more effective way to integrate explicit vocabulary instruction.

In addition, I would be interested in seeing the long-term use of these strategies by teachers, and how much that impacted student learning and comprehension in a class as a whole.  A year-long study would be extremely insightful, and might shed some more light on the learning of our students with disabilities.

In conclusion, it is clear that teachers implement some sort of explicit vocabulary instruction both before reading and during reading, particularly when new concepts and ideas are being introduced.  While it is not realistic to expect this to be done every day, it is an extremely important part of ensuring that all students, including our students with disabilities, are getting the most out of their education.

The Role of Poverty on Vocabulary Development

30 million.  That's 687 times the number of seats in Citizens Bank Park.  The number of miles of 60 round trips to the moon.  With 30 million dollars, you could buy Buckingham Palace and everything inside...twice.  A 30 million word difference between professional and welfare families is a staggering statistic, and that's only in the first four years of a child's life.  I can see why Hart and Risley's study is considered one of the most important when it comes to early vocabulary development related to socio-economic status.

I feel that it's necessary to start this blog post off by saying that this topic is something that I am pretty much completely unfamiliar with.  With the exception of a field experience totaling 10 days in The School District of Philadelphia during my sophomore year of college, I have only been exposed to middle class suburban public school education, both personally and professionally.  Throughout my entire life, I felt privileged to grow up, and now work, in a district that is known for its quality education, above average standardized test scores, and high number of college graduates.  However, after reading the articles assigned for this section, I almost feel like I'm missing something, some crucial experience.  Don't get me wrong...I absolutely love where I work and feel as though it is the perfect place for me to be.  But I sometimes wonder how different my outlook would be if I had more experience teaching in a less privileged area.

Now, I have to say when I was completing my field experience in Philadelphia, I felt completely out of place walking through the halls, and even dreaded going sometimes.  However, I really enjoyed working one-on-one with the students there to prepare them for the PSSAs.  In particular, there is one student that I worked with that I remember very well.  I think I remember him so well because I was amazed at the background knowledge he didn't have.  When we read a passage about a trip to a farm together, he had no idea what many of the animals looked like or what noises they made; things that I would (incorrectly) assume that every child knew.  When I questioned him further, I discovered he had never been to a farm or a zoo.  When I overheard him having conversations with his third grade peers back in the classroom, I was shocked at some of the background knowledge he did have.  It included some things I probably didn't learn until high school, and certainly not things that eight and nine year old children should know!

Even though it's not exactly the information we want students to come to school with, I do think that this is an example of how every student has some sort of background knowledge.  One thing that I've learned from the readings and our discussions about them is that teachers need to identify the strengths that a student has, and put them to use somehow.  In the case that students don't have the necessary prior knowledge, it is our responsibility to create it.  In my own classroom, I use videos, whole-group discussions, and text-previewing in order to do so prior to reading.  Even if students don't have specific knowledge on the topic, they generally can make a connection to something we discuss or see in a video or text.

What's interesting about my caseload is that, while I have a few students that receive free/reduced lunch, many of them come from homes where parents work to support their families.  Despite that, they still seem to be missing some basic words from their vocabulary that most seventh graders already know.  I don't know that there's a 30 million word gap, but there is definitely something left to be desired when it comes to their use of language.  It makes me wonder what the real root of vocabulary development is.  It seems to me that much of what causes the lack of development in students who live below the poverty line is the shortage of varied life experiences.  As I mentioned above, many of these students have never been to a farm, the beach, or any historical sites; and most likely, their parents haven't either.  However, if that's the case for those students, what about my students who have had those types of experiences, and yet still lack the vocabulary?

I don't know what the answer is.  What I do know is that all children, not just those in a low socio-economic environment at home, need to be exposed to a variety of sophisticated language that can be used in a multitude of situations.  If we promote that from a very early age, perhaps we can begin breaking down the 30 million word gap, no matter the type of home a child comes to us from.

The Role of Informational Texts in the Classroom

Immigrants, natural disasters, child labor, invasive species...these are just some of the topics that I get to teach about in my classroom with the program that I use.  The majority of the different workshops that are taught in my class throughout the year include three non-fiction, high-interest, ability appropriate readings, with plenty of supplemental texts and materials.  In addition, the instructional software that my students participate in include all informational topics with a variety of segments.  They are broken down into five major categories:  People and Cultures, Science and Math, History and Geography, Literature and the Arts, and Your World and Beyond.  They include more specific topics, like cool careers, extreme sports, innovative artists, interesting laws in America, and true adventure stories.  On top of the readings I teach and the software my students work on, my classroom library is also filled with leveled books, at least half of them being non-fiction.  There's books on everything from famous musical artists and athletes to the story of the Donner Party from 1846-1847.  (If you don't know the story, check it out.  It's crazy!)  In my own personal experience, it isn't hard to get students excited about informational text when everything is tailored to them.  I have been extremely lucky to have such a positive experience, where students show a desire to read and learn, and more importantly, get to have a choice in the matter!  That, in itself, is appealing to them.

However, the experience for my struggling readers in science and social studies classes is the polar opposite.   The texts and worksheets used are written on a seventh grade level, at which they are not currently reading.  They also don't seem to be written to engage and wholly immerse students' in the information.  I constantly have to convince my class to think of social studies as a story when they're reading about ancient cultures.  Still, they find it uninteresting and difficult.  However, if I read the sections aloud to them, they are much more engaged and retain much more of the information.  The same thing happens with science class.  If they have to learn information by reading and highlighting a worksheet on their own, one of two things happens; they don't do it, or they do it and lack any understanding of what it actually means.  So often, I ask students who come to see me in the morning if they've completed their homework from the previous night, and if they reply yes, inevitably, the next sentence that follows is, "It was so hard!" or "I didn't understand it!" or "Why is science/social studies so confusing?"  I have found that when I take time during 8th period study hall to read aloud and discuss the information, they grasp concepts much more solidly.  However, this doesn't help when my students have to read and comprehend something on their own, without any assistance or discussion.  PSSAs are coming up at the end of this month, and I dread this time for my students.  Don't get me wrong, it's not that I don't have confidence in my teaching or my students...it's just that they start out 7th grade so far below grade level.  As I've mentioned before, my students begin the year anywhere from a second grade to a fifth grade reading level.  Even if they've closed the gap by a year and a half by March, they still won't be up to par.  It's fighting a losing battle, and I can see why some of my students give up on the tests before they even begin.

On top of the discrepancy between grade level and ability with my caseload, generally speaking, my class has little to no idea how to actually read a textbook.  While reading Duke's article, I found myself wondering how much of this is because they weren't exposed to it at a young age.  I also questioned if they were exposed to it, were they taught to read it?  Just yesterday, a student who was working on homework after school with me was reading his history textbook.  On a page in the middle of a section was an insert about reading physical maps, with a information, a map of the elevation of Greece, and questions to practice this skill.  The student turned to me and said, "Do I need to read this?"  He didn't take the time to look at it before asking.  He just knew it wasn't directly a part of the section that was for homework, so he took the opportunity to flip through it.  I can imagine that his thought process was, "Great!  One less page I have to read!"

While our history textbook seems to be pretty kid-friendly, and relatively easy to follow, the science textbook is another story.  They have a ton of information, diagrams, and points written in the margins.  Though the colors are bright, and the writing is not too difficult, the set-up of it is hard to follow.  For a student with little experience with textbooks and how to read them, it must be confusing to know where to look first on a page!  For my caseload of students, at least, I would have to call it an inconsiderate text, as Alexander and Jetton defined it.  My students definitely expend too much cognitive effort trying to figure out where to start, and most likely end up just ignoring the pictures and diagrams, as well as the information in the margins.

As you can see, I have a completely mixed experience with informational text in my classroom.  It is something I try to help my students through each and every day, teaching different strategies, as well as assisting them through it when necessary.  I have certainly seen an improvement in their abilities and confidence working with non-fiction in my classroom, which is what I try to focus on.

Motivation - A Fire Within

"Motivation is a fire from within. If someone else tries to light that fire under you, chances are it will burn very briefly." –Stephen R. Covey

What motivates you?  For me, it depends on the task.  When it comes to reading, the book itself is the incentive.  There’s nothing I like better than getting wrapped up in a story, and being unable to put it down.  I've been so engaged in a book before that I've make dinner and eaten while reading them.  (Seriously, true story!)  Unfortunately, my students generally don’t feel the same enthusiasm for literature as I do.  They are all at least two grade levels below where they should be, and most are three or four below.  They have struggled with reading for their entire lives, and as a result, they are unable to see how enjoyable it can be.

On the first day of class, I always begin by asking my students who likes to read.  As expected, I rarely see any hands go up.  I then ask them how they feel about reading.  Many respond that they dislike, or even hate it, and that’s it’s very difficult and confusing for them.  In addition, they claim that they can never find books that they want to read.  After this discussion, I explain to students that my goal for the year is to get them to find one book that they enjoy.  Not five, not ten, not even two…one.  I truly believe that all it takes is one book to light that fire.  Clearly, I’m not the only one who believes this, as it was mentioned on the D2L discussion boards multiple times in response to the Guthrie and Gambrell articles.  I have experienced this with students in the past, and it’s amazing the transformation it can spur.  Students who avoided books like the plague at the start of the year couldn't get enough by the end of the year.  As a result, these students had dramatic growth in their reading level; some even showed over two years improvement. Because of this, these students were able to be included in a regular education classroom the following year for reading class.  Talk about a great moment as a teacher!  Those students stand out in my mind for obvious reasons.

I will admit that I'm lucky when it comes to the program I teach.  It is a research-based intensive reading program with students starting in whole group instruction, then rotating through three stations; independent reading, instructional software, and small group rotation, and finally, ending class with a whole group wrap-up.  Before these rotations even start, there is a 'hype period,' where students learn about the program, as well as reading strategies, and get excited to participate in it.  I find this initiation stage extremely important because in this program especially, students get out what they put in.  Within the program, students are leveled appropriately, and have plenty of opportunities for choice in their daily activities.  Choice, as stated by Gambrell in her article, "Creating Classroom Cultures that Foster Reading Motivation," is a key part of motivating students to read.  "When children told us about both narrative and information books they 'most enjoyed' reading, over 80% responded that they had self-selected the books from the classroom libraries (Gambrell 1996)."  They have choice on the instructional software, regarding the topics that they choose to focus on.  They have choice in the reading corner on what books they want to read, with plenty of options of both fiction or non-fiction, graphic novels or chapter books, sci-fi or comedy, even audio-books.  These choices put the onus on them.  By allowing them to choose a book, there's no one they can blame if they dislike it.  I have seen students discuss previously read books with other students, making recommendations and providing brief summaries, trying to convince them to read a book they enjoyed.  It's a great thing to see!

However, even with all the opportunities in my classroom, I still have reluctant readers.  I still have students that make little to no progress throughout the year.  I still have students that didn't find a book to light their fire when June hits.  This proves Stephen R. Covey's point from above:  No one can force you to do something you don't want to do.  If you're convinced that you're a poor reader and you'll never improve, you're right.  That being said, if you're convinced that you will make gains and better yourself, you're also right!  This is where I really struggle as a teacher.  Even when we do all that we can; displaying our personal love for reading, giving a variety of literature, providing opportunities for students to discuss their experiences and explore their personal interests, explicitly modeling reading strategies...sometimes, it's just not enough.  We can light the fire, but students have to keep it burning.

Gambrell, L. B. (1996). Creating classroom cultures that foster reading motivation. The Reading Teacher, 50(1), 14-25.

Explicit Comprehension Instruction: A Long, Long Road

As a special educator who works with the lowest readers in my school, I have a lot of experience with explicit comprehension instruction.  As the title of this blog post states, it has been quite a journey, and I've learned a lot along the way.  However, I by no means think that I know all there is to know.  In fact, after reading the first five chapters of Strategies That Work, I'm well aware that I still have a lot to learn!

In my classroom, there are many strategies that I use regularly with my students.  Some of these include modeling, guided reading, group discussion, and read alouds.  My favorite strategy seems to combine all three of these, and is called a Directed Reading/Thinking Activity, or DRTA, for short.  For those who may not know what a DRTA is, it is completed (ideally) using a story with a twist-ending.  Depending on the reading level of the students, they read independently or the teacher reads the story aloud.  As the story progresses, students should be marking up the text, making notes of events, sentences, or even words that they think are important.  In addition, there are set stopping points, usually two to four, at which students make and revise predictions about the story.  After seeing a DRTA modeled by Dr. Flanigan in EDR505, I was hooked!  My peers and I were completely engaged, and so curious about what was going to happen in the story.  The predictions that we had made, revised, and revised again left us continually wanting more.  I took this activity back to my classroom the next day, and used the story, "The Gift of the Magi."

What I discovered as my students went through the process is that they truly enjoyed the act of reading.  Just like I was in grad class, my students were completely engaged!  They were making logical predictions, using the text to support their ideas, and even discussing amongst themselves, rather than just with me!  It was an authentic experience for each of them that showed them, given the right mindset, they had all the strategies necessary to comprehend text.  All they needed was to utilize them.  One of my students even predicted the end of the story completely correctly.  It was a really great moment for me as a teacher because I was able to see my students meet success, as well as get excited about reading.

What I took from this experience is that students need authentic experiences like this on a regular basis...especially my struggling readers!  They need to realize that enjoying literature is not a coincidental thing; it can happen almost every time we read something!  (I say almost because, come on, we've all read books that we just couldn't get into.)  As a result, I try to keep my teaching interesting, and engage my class in thoughtful discussions where they are using their background knowledge, opinions, and the text to inform their answers.  I try to make sure that they are talking more than I am throughout my class period.  I know that I'm not successful with this every day, but, hey! It's a long, long road.